Divergence and Convergence of the Public Health Leadership Competency Framework Against Others in Undergraduate Medical Education: A Scoping Review.

Objective: The following scoping review is aimed at identifying leadership competency frameworks in Undergraduate Medical Education (UME) by analyzing the thematic scopes, target audiences, and methods involved. A further objective is to compare the frameworks against a standard framework. Methods: The authors extracted the thematic scope and methods of each framework based on the original author's formulations in each selected paper. The target audience was divided into three sections: UME, medical education, and beyond medical education. The frameworks were converged and diverged against the public health leadership competency framework. Results: Thirty-three frameworks covering thematic scopes such as refugees and migrants were identified. The most common methods to develop leadership frameworks were reviews and interviews. The courses targeted multiple disciplines including medicine and nurses. The identified competency frameworks have not converged among important domains of leadership such as systems thinking, political leadership, leading change, and emotional intelligence. Conclusion: There is a variety of frameworks that support leadership in UME. Nevertheless, they are not consistent in vital domains to face worldwide health challenges. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary leadership competency frameworks which address health challenges should be used in UME.

Risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 transmission in close contacts of adults at high risk of infection due to occupation: results from the contact tracing strategy of the CoVIDA epidemiological surveillance study in Bogotá, Colombia, in 2020-2021.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 transmission in close contacts of adults at high risk of infection due to occupation, participants of the CoVIDA study, in Bogotá D.C., Colombia. SETTING: The CoVIDA study was the largest COVID-19 intensified sentinel epidemiological surveillance study in Colombia thus far, performing over 60 000 RT-PCR tests for SARS-CoV-2 infection. The study implemented a contact tracing strategy (via telephone call) to support traditional surveillance actions performed by the local health authority. PARTICIPANTS: Close contacts of participants from the CoVIDA study. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: SARS-CoV-2 testing results were obtained (RT-PCR with CoVIDA or self-reported results). The secondary attack rate (SAR) was calculated using contacts and primary cases features. RESULTS: The CoVIDA study performed 1257 contact tracing procedures on primary cases. A total of 5551 close contacts were identified and 1050 secondary cases (21.1%) were found. The highest SAR was found in close contacts: (1) who were spouses (SAR=32.7%; 95% CI 29.1% to 36.4%), (2) of informally employed or unemployed primary cases (SAR=29.1%; 95% CI 25.5% to 32.8%), (3) of symptomatic primary cases (SAR of 25.9%; 95% CI 24.0% to 27.9%) and (4) living in households with more than three people (SAR=22.2%; 95% CI 20.7% to 23.8%). The spouses (OR 3.85; 95% CI 2.60 to 5.70), relatives (OR 1.89; 95% CI 1.33 to 2.70) and close contacts of a symptomatic primary case (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.77) had an increased risk of being secondary cases compared with non-relatives and close contacts of an asymptomatic index case, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Contact tracing strategies must focus on households with socioeconomic vulnerabilities to guarantee isolation and testing to stop the spread of the disease.

Assessment of Factors Influencing Personal Exposure to Air Pollution on Main Roads in Bogota: A Mixed-Method Study.

Background and Objectives: Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but small diameter can penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and/or cardiovascular diseases. This study aims to evaluate the association of environmental particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) with respiratory health in users of different transport modes in four roads in Bogotá. Materials and Methods: this was a mixed-method study (including a cross sectional study and a qualitative description of the air quality perception), in 300 healthy participants, based on an exploratory sequential design. The respiratory effect was measured comparing the changes between pre- and post-spirometry. The PM2.5 and black carbon (BC) concentrations were measured using portable devices. Inhaled doses were also calculated for each participant according to the mode and route. Perception was approached through semi-structured interviews. The analysis included multivariate models and concurrent triangulation. Results: The concentration of matter and black carbon were greater in bus users (median 50.67 µg m-3; interquartile range (-IR): 306.7). We found greater inhaled dosages of air pollutants among bike users (16.41 µg m-3). We did not find changes in the spirometry parameter associated with air pollutants or transport modes. The participants reported a major sensory influence at the visual and olfactory level as perception of bad air quality. Conclusions: We observed greater inhaled doses among active transport users. Nevertheless, no pathological changes were identified in the spirometry parameters. People's perceptions are a preponderant element in the assessment of air quality.

La atención primaria en salud renovada: el caso de Bogotá en un escenario de pandemia de COVID-19

La atención primaria en salud es la estrategia central definida por la organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) para alcanzar el objetivo de "Salud Para Todos" propuesto desde 1978 por Alma Ata. En la región de las américas esta estrategia ha sido incluida dentro de los sistemas de salud y se ha interpretado y adaptado a los contextos políticos, culturales, sociales y económicos de los países en vía de desarrollo. En Colombia esta propuesta ha estado inmersa y algunas normas la definen y acotan para el desarrollo en los municipios. Bogotá ha incluido esta propuesta desde hace ya varios años, y en cada cambio de gobierno se le da una connotación particular acorde con las propuestas de los planes territoriales de salud y las propuestas en los planes de desarrollo, con mayor o menor énfasis en sus postulados. Este artículo muestra el abordaje que se da desde la atención primaria en los últimos periodos de gobierno y cómo interactúa en una pandemia como la de COVID-19.

Primary health care is the central strategy defined by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) to achieve the goal of "Health for All" proposed since 1978 by Alma Ata. In the region of the Americas, this strategy has been included within health systems and has been interpreted and adapted to the political, cultural, social and economic contexts of developing countries. In Colombia this setting has been immersed and some regulations define and limit it for development in the municipalities. Bogotá has included this position for several years now, and in each change of government it is given a particular connotation according to the proposals of the territorial health plans and the proposals in the development plans, with or not greater emphasis on its postulates. This article shows the approach that is given from primary care in the last periods of government and how it interacts in a pandemic such as the one presented by COVID-19.

Assessment of Personal Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in Different Microenvironments and Traveling by Several Modes of Transportation in Bogotá, Colombia: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study (ITHACA).

BACKGROUND: Air pollution in most countries exceeds the levels recommended by the World Health Organization, causing up to one-third of deaths due to noncommunicable diseases. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) from mobile sources are the main contaminants. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess the relationship of exposure to air pollutants (PM2.5 and BC) in microenvironments according to respiratory health and physical activity in users traveling by different types of transportation in Bogotá, Colombia. METHODS: A mixed methods study based on a convergent parallel design will be performed with workers and students. The sample will include 350 healthy transport users traveling by different urban transportation modes in three main routes in Bogotá. The study is broken down into two components: (1) a descriptive qualitative component focused on assessing the individual perception of air pollution using semistructured interviews; and (2) a cross-sectional study measuring the individual exposure to PM2.5 and BC using portable instruments (DustTrak and microAeth, respectively), pulmonary function by spirometry, and physical activity with accelerometry. The analysis will include concurrent triangulation and logistic regression. RESULTS: The findings will be useful for the conception, design, and decision-making process in the sectors of health and mobility from public, academy, and private perspectives. This study includes personal measurements of PM2.5 and BC during typical trips in the city to assess the exposure to these contaminants in the major roadways in real time. The study further compares the performance of two different lung tests to identify possible short-term respiratory effects. As a limitation, the protocol will include participants from different institutions in the city, which are not necessarily representative of all healthy populations in Bogotá. In this sense, it is not possible to draw causation conclusions. Moreover, a convergent parallel design could be especially problematic concerning integration because such a design often lacks a clear plan for making a connection between the two sets of results, which may not be well connected. Nevertheless, this study adopts a procedure for how to integrate qualitative and quantitative data in the interpretation of the results and a multilevel regression. The time that participants must live in the city will be considered; this will be controlled in the stratified analysis. Another limitation is the wide age range and working status of the participants. Regional pollution levels and episodes (PM2.5) will be handled as confounding variables. The study is currently in the enrollment phase of the participants. Measurements have been made on 300 participants. Pandemic conditions affected the study schedule; however, the results are likely to be obtained by late 2022. CONCLUSIONS: This study investigates the exposure to air pollutants in microenvironments in Bogotá, Colombia. To our knowledge, this is the first mixed methods study focusing on PM2.5, BC, and respiratory health effects in a city over 2 meters above sea level. This study will provide an integration of air pollution exposure variables and respiratory health effects in different microenvironments. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/25690.

Tensiones en el abordaje de la salud bucal en Colombia: caso ENSAB IV / Tensions in the Oral Health Approach in Colombia: Case ENSAB IV / Tensões na abordagem da saúde bucal na Colômbia: caso ENSAB IV

Antecedentes: El Cuarto Estudio Nacional de Salud Bucal (ENSAB IV) representa un hito en los estudios nacionales de salud en Colombia debido a que se plantea desde un enfoque teórico alternativo y crítico llamado Determinación Social del Proceso Salud Enfermedad (DSSE). Sin embargo, operacionalizar ese enfoque teórico implicó desafíos importantes y generó algunas tensiones que limitaron la perspectiva crítica y transformadora que orientaba este estudio. Objetivo: mostrar las principales tensiones y desafíos epistemológicos y prácticos en el proceso de diseño y ejecución de la ENSAB IV. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de caso triangulando información de fuentes primarias y secundarias. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a actores clave que participaron en las diferentes fases del estudio y se hizo un análisis de contenido del protocolo y el informe final del estudio. Resultados: Las principales tensiones y desafíos evidenciados fueron el cambio de instituciones y actores responsables de las fases de diseño y ejecución; la no apropiación del enfoque teórico ­ metodológico en los resultados y recomendaciones finales y la falta de visibilización y articulación del componente cualitativo dentro del estudio. Conclusión: La fragmentación del proceso de diseño y ejecución del estudio y el cambio de actores responsables de cada fase, generó dificultades en la operacionalización del enfoque teórico-metodológico propuesto en el diseño del ENSAB IV, tanto por la poca orientación metodológica del enfoque en sí mismo, como por la resistencia institucional a mostrar resultados sanitarios desde perspectivas críticas.

Background: The Fourth National Study of Oral Health (ENSAB IV) represents a milestone in national health studies in Colombia because it arises from an alternative and critical theoretical approach called Social determination of the health disease process (DSSE). However, operationalizing this theoretical approach involved important challenges and generated some tensions that limited the critical and transformative perspective that guided this study. Purpose: To show the main tensions and challenges epistemological and practical in the process of design and execution of the ENSAB IV. Methods: A case study was conducted triangulating information from primary and secondary sources. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to key stakeholders who participated in the different phases of the study and a content analysis of the protocol and the final study report was made. Results: The main tensions and challenges highlighted were the change of institutions and actors responsible for the design and execution phases; the non-appropriation of the theoretical-methodological approach in the final results and recommendations and the lack of visibility and articulation of the qualitative component within the study. Conclusion: The fragmentation of the design process and implementation of the study and the change of actors responsible for each phase, created difficulties for the operationalization of the theoretical methodological approach proposed in the design of the ENSAB IV, both by the little methodological guidance of the approach in itself, as by the institutional resistance to show health outcomes from critical perspectives.

Antecedentes: O quarto Estudo Nacional de Saúde Bucal (ENSAB IV) da um marco nos estudos nacionais de saúde na Colômbia porque surge a partir de uma abordagem alternativa e teórica crítica chamado Determinação Social do Processo de Doença-Saúde (DSSE). Embora, a operacionalização dessa abordagem teórica implicou desafios significativos e gerou algumas tensões que limitaram a perspectiva crítica e transformadora que orientou nosso estudo. Objetivo: avaliar as principais tensões e desafios epistemológicos e práticos no processo de concepção e execução da ENSAB IV. Métodos: Estudo de caso com triangulação de informações obtidas de fontes primárias e secundárias. Se realizaram entrevistas semi-estruturadas com atores-chave que tido participado das diferentes fases do estudo. Finalmente, foi feita uma análise do conteúdo do protocolo e do relatório final do estudo. Resultados: As principais tensões e desafios evidenciados foram, a mudança de instituições e atores responsáveis pelas fases de projeto e execução, a carência da apropriação da abordagem teórico - metodológica nos resultados finais e recomendações, e a falta da visibilidade e articulação do componente qualitativo dentro do estudo. Conclusão: A fragmentação do processo de desenho e execução do estudo, assim como a mudança dos atores responsáveis por cada fase, geraram dificuldades na operacionalização da abordagem teórico-metodológica proposta no projeto da ENSAB IV. Isso pela pouca orientação metodológica, como pela resistência institucional para mostrar resultados de saúde desde perspectivas críticas.

Menores de 16 años con concentraciones de mercurio por exposición ambiental en Bogotá / Under 16-Year Old Children Affected by Mercury Concentrations Due to Environmental Exposure in Bogotá / Menores de 16 Anos com Concentrações de Mercúrio por Exposição Ambiental em Bogotá

Introducción: El mercurio es un metal pesado; se encuentra en el ambiente de forma natural y antrópica (minería de metales; industrias de fundiciones, de combustión de carbón y de cloro-álcali); produce afectaciones a la salud de los niños, especialmente en el sistema nervioso central (retardo mental y neurodesarrollo, parálisis cerebral, ataxia, convulsiones, ceguera, sordera). Metodología: Es un estudio descriptivo, de análisis secundario, con base en el estudio de "Prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá 2012/2013". Se tomaron muestras en sangre, cabello y orina, interpretadas por el Laboratorio de Salud Pública de la Secretaría Distrital de Salud, con la metodología 7473 de la Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A todos los participantes se les realizó valoración médica, con un instrumento adaptado del Global Mercury Project; se seleccionó el grupo menor de 16 años, con el objeto de realizar un análisis sociodemográfico y clínico por concentraciones de mercurio. Resultados: La proporción de mercurio en cualquier biomarcador fue del 81,2 %; se encontró un caso con niveles superiores a los valores máximos permitidos para mercurio en cabello, que presentó problemas en desarrollo, crecimiento y aprendizaje. Discusión: Se observa que se está presentando una exposición a edades tempranas, por lo cual es importante determinar las fuentes que puede generar la contaminación ambiental e implementar un sistema de vigilancia. Las alteraciones en el crecimiento, desarrollo, aprendizaje y comportamiento evidenciadas en el caso con niveles elevados no son exclusivas de la presencia de mercurio; es posible que existan otras entidades nosológicas que puedan generar estas afecciones a la salud.

Introduction: Mercury is a heavy metal released naturally and anthropically in the environment (metal mining, foundry industries, coal combustion, and chlorine alkali); it also affects the health of people, especially some children impacted upon their central nervous system (mental retardation and neurodevelopment, cerebral palsy, ataxia, convulsions, blindness, deafness). Methodology: We developed a descriptive study, and a secondary analysis based on the study "Mercury-and-lead prevalence in overall population, Bogota 2012/2013". Blood, hair and urine samples taken by the Public Health Laboratory of the District Health Secretariat using the EPA's 7473 methodology. All participants medically valuated with an instrument adapted of the Global Mercury Project; a group under 16 years of age selected for a socio-demographic and clinical analysis of mercury concentrations. Results: The mercury ratio for any biomarker was 81.2 %; we found a case with levels higher than the maximum values allowed for mercury upon hair, which generated problems of development, growth and learning. Discussion: Early age exposure is observed, therefore it is important to establish the relevant sources of environmental pollution and implementing a monitoring system; the alterations of growth, development, learning and behavior ­evidenced with higher levels­ are not the only ones produced by mercury, since there may be other particular substances causing such affections.

Introdução: O mercúrio é um metal pesado que se acha num ambiente de forma natural e antrópica (mineração de metais, indústrias de fundições, de combustão de carvão e de cloro álcali); produz afetações na saúde das crianças especialmente no sistema nervoso central (retardo mental e desenvolvimento neural, paralise cerebral, ataxia, convulsões, cegueira, surdez). Metodologia: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, de análise secundário, baseado no estudo de "Prevalência de mercúrio e chumbo na população geral de Bogotá 2012/2013". Foram tomadas mostras no sangue, cabelos e urina, interpretadas pelo Laboratório de Saúde Pública da Secretaria Distrital de Saúde usando a metodologia de 7374 da EPA; em todos os participantes foi realizada valoração médica com um instrumento adaptado do Global Mercury Project; selecionou-se um grupo menor de 16 anos com o objeto de realizar uma análise sócio demográfica e clinica por concentrações de mercúrio. Resultados: A proporção de mercúrio em qualquer biomarcador foi de 81.2 %; achou-se um caso com níveis superiores aos valores máximos permitidos para mercúrio nos cabelos o que apresentou problemas no desenvolvimento, crescimento e aprendizagem. Discussão: Observa-se que está se apresentando uma exposição em crianças de menor idade, pelo qual é importante determinar as fontes que podem gerar a contaminação no ambiente e implementar um sistema de vigilância; as alterações no crescimento, desenvolvimento, aprendizagem e comportamento evidenciadas, no caso de níveis elevados, não são exclusivas da presencia de mercúrio, podem existir outras entidades nosológicas que puderam gerar essas afeiçoes na saúde.

Efectos auditivos y extraauditivos por exposición al ruido ambiental en docentes de las localidades de Fontibón y Engativá. Bogotá, D. C., 2010 / Auditory Effects and Extraauditivos Exposure to Environmental Noise in Teachers of the localities of Fontibón and Engativá. Bogotá, D. C., 2010 / Efeitos auditivos e extraauditivos pela exposição ao ruído ambiental em professores das localidades de Fontibón e Engativá. Bogotá, D. C., 2010

Introducción: El ruido es una de las principales causas de preocupación para muchas poblaciones, ya que incide en la calidad de vida y, además, puede provocar efectos nocivos sobre la salud. Uno de sus efectos es la pérdida de la audición (hipoacusia), que puede ser reversible o permanente, pues progresa con lentitud, de forma proporcional con la exposición. Objetivos: Implementar un estudio de monitorización de los efectos auditivos y no auditivosen la salud determinando los niveles de ruido poblacional y ambiental en docentes de las localidades de Fontibón y Engativá, que contribuya en la construcción del sistema de vigilancia epidemiológica. Métodos: Estudio observacional de tipo transversal. La población sujeto de estudio fue constituida por 147 docentes que laboran en las instituciones educativas distritales (IED) definidas como de mayor exposición (> 65 dB) y de menor exposición (< 65 dB), según el mapa de ruido ambiental de cada localidad (clasificación revisada con mediciones de ruido ambiental y poblacional realizadas en los centros educativos). Se hizo una encuesta de antecedentes de salud y de percepción de ruido indagando sobre antecedentes familiares, personales y hábitos relacionados con la salud auditiva y una audiometría tonal liminal y otoscopia. Para la calificación del grado de severidad, se estimó lo recomendado en la guía GATI­HNIR. Resultados: El 27,7 % de los docentes (40 de los participantes) presentaron hipoacusia en algún grado de severidad, resultado asociado al promedio mayor de respuesta del umbral de los docentes de los colegios de mayor exposición. La exposición fue asociada, a su vez, a acúfenos y a la sensación de ruido en el entorno; las fuentes generadoras identificadas con mayor frecuencia son el tráfico aéreo y el terrestre, concordante ello con la ubicación de las instituciones educativas. La hipoacusia fue más común en los docentes de la localidad de Engativá (p < 0,001), en docentes de edades ≥ 45 años (p < 0,001) y quienes presentan hipertensión arterial (HTA) (p = 0,041). Los umbrales auditivos son más altos en los colegios altamente expuestos para todas las frecuencias, excepto las de 500 y 6000 Hz para ambos oídos (p < 0,05) Los síntomas otológicos se asociaron a la exposición > 65 dB (p = 0,007), al igual que diversos síntomas neurológicos (p = 0,002). No se encontró relación con síntomas psicológicos. Conclusión: Los docentes vinculados a instituciones de alta exposición presentan mayores efectos auditivos y extraauditivos, en comparación con quienes laboran en colegios menos expuestos, lo que puede estar afectando el proceso de enseñanza. El diseño y la ubicación de colegios deben tener en cuenta estos impactos, para evitar futuras afectaciones.

Introduction: Noise is one of the main causes of concern within populations, as it affects negatively the quality of life and health of individuals. One of its effects is hearing loss (hypoacusis) that may be reversible or permanent as it slowly progresses proportionally to exposure. Objectives: To implement a monitoring study of the hearing and non-auditory health effects, to determine the levels of population and environmental noise for teachers in Fontibon and Engativa, that contributes to the construction of an epidemiological surveillance system. Methods: Transversal observational study. The population for this study was constituted by 147 teachers belonging to district educational institutions, divided into high exposure (> 65 dB) and low exposure (< 65 dB), according to the environmental noise maps of each district, revised classification with population and environmental noise measurements performed in educational centers. A survey of health history and noise perception was conducted, asking about family and personal backgrounds, habits related to hearing health, and a liminal tone audiometry and otoscopy. To classify the degree of severity, it was estimated according to the guide GATI-HNIR. Results: 27.7 % of teachers (40 people) presented hearing loss in some severity degree. This result is associated to the higher response average of the threshold of teachers of schools with high exposure. Exposure was associated with tinnitus and the sensation of noise in the environment. The identified generating sources with higher frequency are air and ground traffic, in accordance with the location of schools. Hearing loss was more frequent within teachers in Engativá (p < 0.001), of age ≥ 45 years (p < 0.001), and those who present HTN (p = 0,041). The hearing thresholds are higher for schools with high exposure for all frequencies, except those of 500 and 6000 Hz for both ears (p < 0.05). Otologic symptoms were associated to the exposure > 65 dBA (p = 0.007), as well as neurological symptoms (p = 0.002). No relation was found with psychological symptoms. Conclusion: Teachers from schools exposed to high levels presented higher auditory and extra-auditory effects, in comparison to those exposed to lower levels of noise. This could affect the teaching process. The design and location of the schools must take into account these type of impacts to avoid future damag

Introdução: O ruído é uma das principais causas de preocupação para muitas populações, uma vez que afeta a qualidade de vida e também pode causar efeitos adversos à saúde. Um efeito é a perda de audição (Hipoacusia), que pode ser reversível ou permanente e progride lentamente de forma proporcional com a exposição. Objetivos: O objetivo do estudo foi implementar um estudo de monitorização dos efeitos na saúde auditiva e não auditiva, determinando os níveis de ruído da população e do ambiente em professores das localidades de Fontibón e Engativá, que contribuíam na construção de um sistema de monitoramento epidemiológica. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal. A população de estudo foi constituída de 147 professores das Instituições Educacionais do Distrito definidos como maior exposição (> 65 dB) e exposição menor (< 65 dB), de acordo com o mapa de ruído ambiente de cada localidade, classificação revista por medições de ruído ambiental e populacional realizado nos centros de educação. Foi realizado um questionário sobre o histórico de saúde e percepção de ruído indagando os antecedentes familiares, pessoais e hábitos relacionados com a saúde auditiva, audiometria tonal liminar e otoscopia. Para determinar o grau de severidade foi apreciada a recomendação da guia GATI-HNIR. Resultados: 27,7 % dos profesores (40) apresentaram hipoacusia em algum grau gravidade, resultado associado ao promédio maior de resposta no limiar de professores de colégios com maior exposição. A exposição foi associada a zumbido e sensação de ruído no ambiente, as fontes identificadas com mais frequência são de tráfego aéreo e rodoviário, de forma compatível com a localização das instituições de ensino. A hipoacusia foi mais frequente em professores da localidade de Engativá (p < 0,001), em professores com idade ≥ 45 anos (p < 0,001) e com HTA (p = 0,041). Os limiares auditivos são mais elevados em escolas altamente expostas para todas as frequências, exceto as de 500 e 6000 Hz para ambas as orelhas (p < 0,05). Ossintomas otológicos associados à exposição > 65dBA (p = 0,007), igual aos sintomas neurológicos (p = 0,002). Não foi encontrada relação com sintomas psicológicos. Conclusão: Os professores vinculados às instituições com maior exposição, apresentam maiores efeitos auditivos e extra-auditivos em comparação com os pertencentes aos colégios menos expostos, o que pode estar afetando o processo de ensino. O modelo e a localização das escolas devem considerar estes impactos para evitar danos futuros.

Factores asociados con mortalidad por infección respiratoria aguda en una población de niños menores de cinco años residentes en la ciudad de Bogotá / Factors Affecting Mortality from Acute Respiratory Infections in a Population of Children under Five Years Living in the city of Bogota

Introducción: Las infecciones respiratorias agudas (IRA), principalmente la neumonía y en segundo lugar la bronquiolitis, son la causa infecciosa más frecuente de muerte en niños menores de cinco años de edad. Objetivo: Determinar el papel de potenciales factores de riesgo como predictores de mortalidad por infección respiratoria aguda. Método: Estudio observacional analítico de casos y controles con 258 pacientes pediátricos menores de cinco años con enfermedad respiratoria aguda atendidos en cuatro hospitales de la zona suroriental de Bogotá. Resultados: Los hallazgos de acidosis metabólica, acidemia al momento del ingreso a la unidad de cuidado intensivo (UCI) y el antecedente de ingreso a la UCI en los meses de marzo, abril y mayo, respecto al ingreso en los demás meses del año, fueron predictores de la mortalidad. Entre tanto, la presencia de aleteo nasal y la administración de antibióticos en la segunda consulta, mostraron reducir el riesgo de mortalidad. Palabras clave: neumonía, mortalidad, infección, enfermedad pulmonar intersticial.

Introduction: In acute respiratory infections (ARI), pneumonia in the first place and bronchiolitis in the second place are the most common infectious cause of death in children under five years old. Objective: To establish the role of potential risk factors as predictors of mortality from acute respiratory infection. Method: An observational/analytic case-control study was conducted with 258 pediatric patients younger than five years old with acute respiratory disease (ARD) treated at four south-eastern hospitals in Bogotá. Results: Findings of metabolic acidosis and acidemia at ICU admission, as well as patients’ clinical history at ICU admission were taken as mortality predictors in the months of March, April and May, with regard to their admission in other months, and the presence of nasal flaring and the administration of antibiotics at the second consultation decreased mortality risk. Key words: Pneumonia, mortality, infection, interstitial lung disease.

Algunos factores de riesgo asociados a la mortalidad infantil en la ciudad de Bogotá, 2008 / Some risk factors associated with infant mortality in Bogota in 2008

Introducción: La tasa de mortalidad infantil en el Distrito Capital para el 2006 fue de 13,5 casos por 1.000 nacidos vivos. Aunque ha venido disminuyendo levemente en los últimos cinco años, la tendencia es a mantenerse estable. Para Bogotá era necesario caracterizar los factores asociados a la mortalidad infantil, que facilitaría las intervenciones de prevención y atención en la niñez menor de un año. Objetivo: Identificar algunos factores asociados a la mortalidad infantil en la ciudad de Bogotá en el 2008, mediante las variables incluidas en los certificados de defunción y los certificados de nacidos vivos. Método: Estudio de casos y controles. 1) Casos: defunciones en menores de un año durante el 2008 en Bogotá, y 2) controles: los nacidos vivos en el 2007 en Bogotá. Se utilizó un análisis bivariado estratificando por bajo peso y edad gestacional. Se empleó un modelo de regresión logística que incluía las variables con un valor de p < 0,10 en el análisis bivariado. Resultados: Los factores de riesgo para mortalidad infantil fueron: la edad gestacional menor de 37 semanas, el peso al nacer menor de 2.500 g, el niveleducativo de la madre con primaria o sin educación, la afiliación al régimen subsidiado y el sexo masculino. Conclusiones: Se identificaron factores de riesgo propios del recién nacido y del control prenatal, así como de la vinculación al Sistema de Seguridad en Salud. Estos factores son potencialmente modificables. Palabras clave: factor de riesgo, mortalidad infantil, peso bajo al nacer, baja edad gestacional, estudio caso-control.

Introduction: Infant mortality in the Bogota for 2006 was 13.5 cases per 1,000 live births. While it has been declining slightly over the past five years the trend has been stable. For Bogota it’s necessary to characterize the factors associated with infant mortality which facilitate the prevention and care interventions in this type of population. Objective: To identify some factors ssociated with infant mortality in Bogotá in 2008 through the variables included in 1death certificates and certificates of live births. Materials and methods: Case-Control Studies: (1) Case: eaths under one year old in 2008 in the Capital District, and (2) control: live births in 2007 in the Capital District. It was used a bivariate analysis, stratified by weight and gestational age. It was used a logistic regression model including the variables with p < 0.10 in the bivariate analysis. Results: The risk factors for infant mortality were: gestational age less than 37 weeks, birth weight less than 2,500 g, mother’s educational level with primary or no education, affiliation to the subsidized regime and males. Conclusions: There are risk factors that can be modified hrough the maternal health care which will prevent preterm births and children with low birth weight. It can reduce the risk of infant mortality, ensuring a good education of the population, improving the quality of care in health services and giving greater attention to males, which is not only risk factor for infant mortality but for some morbidities. Key words: Risk factors, infant mortality, low birth weight, low gestational age, case-control study.

Relación entre enfermedad respiratoria aguda en niños menores a cinco años y contaminación atmosférica en Bogotá / Relationship between acute respiratory disease in children under five years of age and air pollution in Bogota

Diversos estudios realizados alrededor del mundo han evidenciado la asociación positiva entre la Enfermedad Respiratoria Aguda (ERA) y la contaminación atmosférica, especialmente por material particulado menor a 10 micrómetros (PM10). Para Bogotá, en el año de 1997 Aristizábal (1) concluye que una alta concentración de PM10 en la zona industrial de Puente Aranda, es un vehículo facilitador para que se presenten problemas respiratorios. En 1999, Solarte (2) detecta que un aumento de 10ug/m3 en la concentración de PM10 produce un aumento de por lo menos, el 8% en el número de consultas por ERA en los niños menores de catorce años. Se buscó con el presente estudio determinar la relación entre la morbilidad por ERA y la concentración de PM10 en la Localidad Puente Aranda para el año 2005. Para tal efecto, se llevó a cabo el análisis de 2240 registros de consultas por ERA en niños menores de cinco años que eran atendidos en el Hospital del Sur, de la Localidad de Puente Aranda (zona de alta influencia industrial y denso flujo vehicular), durante los meses de enero a junio de 2005. La información de calidad del aire con la cual se relacionaron los datos de salud fue suministrada por la Red de monitoreo de Calidad de Aire de Bogotá operada por el DAMA. Para esta correlación se utilizó un modelo lineal generalizado (Regresión de Poisson). Se evidenció asociación positiva entre las concentraciones de PM10 y el número de consultas por ERA que suceden luego de seis días del fenómeno de contaminación. Un aumento de 10µg/m3 en la concentración de PM10, ocasionaría un incremento del 4% en las consultas por ERA, para los niños menores a cinco años que habitan en la Localidad de Puente Aranda.

Many studies around the world, have demonstrated the relation between air pollution and acute respiratory illness. Bogota is a megacity where highs levels or particulate matter are presented every day in the atmosphere.From the analysis of 2240 reports for acute respiratory illnesses in children less than 5 years of age, obtained in the South Hospital of Bogota city during the months of January through June 2005 it was man­aged to obtain a positive correlation with the concentrations of particu­late matter less than 10 micrometers of aerodynamic diameter (PM 10) provided by the Air Quality Network in Puente Aranda Locality, a zone of high industrial influence and dense vehicular flow.Positive associations between the PM 10 levels and the number of cases afected by respiratory illnesses were obtained for a period of six days after the episode, even though the reached particle levels did not exceed the local environmental standards. A generalized linear model was used for this correlation (Poisson Regression).

Qué pasó con la mortalidad por enfermedad respiratoria aguda (ERA) en menores de 5 años en el Distrito Capital en el año 2005 / What happened to mortality due to acute respiratory disease (ARD) in children under 5 years of age in the Capital District in 2005?

Introducción: La Enfermedad Respiratoria Aguda, constituye la primera causa de morbilidad y mortalidad en el grupo de niños y niñas menores de cinco años en el Distrito Capital. La vigilancia epidemiológica de la Enfermedad Respiratoria Aguda, constituye una estrategia de monitoreo no sólo del evento de mortalidad expresado en números absolutos o tasas, sino también una visibilización de los factores de persona, tiempo y lugar, así como de las características sociodemográficas que favorecen el riesgo de morir en estos niños. Materiales y Métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo, a partir de los casos de mortalidad por Enfermedad Respiratoria Aguda en menores de 5 años, registrados en los Certificados de Defunción por parte de la Secretaría de Salud de Bogotá, en el año 2005. Se tuvieron en cuenta los diagnósticos compatibles con ERA, independientemente que estuvieran registrados en el ítem de “Causa Directa”, “Causas Antecedentes” u “Otros Factores Patológicos Importantes”. Otras fuentes de información, son: Los análisis de caso, realizados a partir de los Comités de Vigilancia Epidemiológica (COVE) de los casos de mortalidad por ERA del año 2005. Para las mortalidades por ERA en menores de 5 años, se definieron tres tipos de casos: 1. Casos Confirmados de ERA: A partir de los Certificados de Defunción, en los cuales se determina que la Enfermedad Respiratoria Aguda es el principal riesgo atribuible para la mortalidad. El Caso probable de ERA: Son aquellas mortalidades en menores de 5 años en los que aparece un diagnóstico nosológico de ERA, como “causa directa”, “causas antecedentes” ú “otros factores patológicos importantes”, El Caso Descartado: Es la mortalidad por ERA en menor de 5 años, en el que de determinó al analizar el Certificado de Defunción, la epicrisis o el análisis de caso que se realizó en el COVE.

Introduction: Acute Respiratory Disease, constitutes the first cause of morbidity and mortality in the group of children under five years of age in the Capital District. Epidemiological surveillance of Acute Respiratory Disease constitutes a monitoring strategy not only of the mortality event expressed in absolute numbers or rates, but also a visualization of the factors of person, time and place, as well as the sociodemographic characteristics that favor the risk of death in these children. Materials and Methods: A descriptive study was carried out based on the cases of mortality due to Acute Respiratory Disease in children under 5 years of age, registered in the Death Certificates issued by the Secretariat of Health of Bogota in 2005. The diagnoses compatible with ARD were taken into account, regardless of whether they were registered under Direct Cause, Antecedent Causes or Other Important Pathological Factors. Other sources of information are: The case analyses, performed from the Epidemiological Surveillance Committees (COVE) of the cases of mortality due to ARD in 2005. Three types of cases were defined for ARD mortalities in children under 5 years of age: 1. Confirmed cases of ARD: From Death Certificates, in which Acute Respiratory Disease is determined to be the main attributable risk for mortality. Probable case of ARD: Mortalities in children under 5 years of age in which a nosological diagnosis of ARD appears as a direct cause, antecedent causes or other important pathological factors. The ruled-out case: Mortality due to ARD in children under 5 years of age, determined by analyzing the Death Certificate, the epicrisis or the case analysis performed in the COVE.